The Industrial Revolution replaced human and animal labor with coal-powered machinery, fundamentally transforming how work was performed.

The transition to a coal-based economy accelerated with James Watt's improvements to the Newcomen steam engine in 1776. This breakthrough allowed factories to relocate away from rivers, since they no longer needed water wheels for power. By 1800, coal supplied roughly 90% of Britain's energy needs—the first time any civilization had moved beyond organic energy sources like wood and animal feed.According to data from the British Geological Survey, coal production reached 10 million tonnes by 1800 and climbed to 250 million tonnes by 1900. This explosive growth was driven by the expansion of railway networks and the iron industry, which relied on coal-derived coke for smelting ore. A self-reinforcing cycle emerged: coal powered the trains that transported more coal to expanding cities, which demanded even more energy.The environmental consequences were immediate and measurable. Ice core samples analyzed by the British Antarctic Survey reveal a sharp increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane beginning around 1750. This period established the carbon-intensive energy infrastructure that continues to dominate global systems today. It represents humanity's most significant shift in energy consumption since the discovery of fire.